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Sara Hopper
Professor Grotans
Medieval History 210
31 May, 2008
Medieval Horses
Throughout history, horses have had an immeasurable impact on mankind. From long before the Roman Empire when man saw the horse as an animal that could provide speed, food, and transportation, to the days of the Wild West, the horse has always played a vital role in our history. However, perhaps the greatest era of horsemanship was the Middle Ages (a.k.a. the Medieval period). During this time, horses were used for everything from transport and agriculture to warfare. Medieval people began to breed the previously small horse to suit their needs, as well as create new technologies and methods to benefit even more from their equines. If it weren’t for the horse, the Middle Ages would have been a different place entirely.
The horses that we see in medieval art as well as the pastures of today were not always that way. During the Roman times horses were often so small that if one were to ride it, their feet may drag the ground, hardly the great warhorse we read about in stories. It was during this time that “the Romans first organized horse breeding on a large scale, both for chariot racing and for cavalry” (Davis). However, this breeding required special consideration for both the mare and sire, and during the decline of the Roman empire, this strict method of controlling the production of horses came to a halt, and the amount of feral (runaway domestic) horses increased leading to a serious shortage of good horses. This also led to the success of the Arabs during this time, who, having kept their breeding programs intact, were able to conquer Egypt, the North African coastline, and Spain (where they were halted by Charles Martel at Poi tiers) on there pureblood Arabian horses. These hardy horses were (and still are) known for their endurance and gave the Muslims the advantage they needed. The revival of the “Spanish horse” seems to have taken place around the 5th and 6th centuries, when “Frankish armies were first seen to have really large bodies of cavalry” (Clark). There are also many written accounts of the European admiration for good horses from people like Pope John VIII and Charlemagne. During his reign, it is written that Charlemagne “segregated his mares so that none but his special stallions had access to them…and prohibited the export of these stallions”(Davis) (much like weapons and armor under the capitularies?). This separation of stallions from mares and selective breeding became customary for war and riding horses during this time. Agricultural and workhorses however, were not given this same consideration and could often be ill fed and over-worked (even pregnant mares).
During the middle ages, horses were usually classified by type, rather than by breed (as they are today). These types often described what the horse could be used for, as well as its conformation. Perhaps the most well known and prized of these types was the destrier. The destrier was the medieval heavy warhorse, and was usually larger, stronger, and better trained than its counterparts. The destrier was also the “type desired by the most noble and wealthy knights, and was often described as the ideal “great warhorse” of the time” (Wikipedia). Another type of horse was the rouncy. These were the more “general purpose” type horses that could be used both for cavalry as well as for riding. Packhorses were often times smaller than the other types and stout in order to be able to carry loads over long distances. Other types of medieval horses consisted of the carthorse (which became more popular as roads were formed), coursers (warhorses that were slightly less desirable than the destrier), palfreys (well-bred horses that served many purposes for nobles), jennets (riding horses), hackneys (riding horses still in existence today), and hobbys (light cavalry). Warhorses during this time were also always stallions (unlike the Muslims who usually rode mares into battle), which were prized due to their high-strung, more vicious demeanors.
Medieval warhorses continued to make up more and more of the army as the Middle Ages wore on. This was the era in which the importance of the knight and his “heavy horse” was introduced. However, while this was the first time the heavy horse was widely used, evidence shows that the use of light cavalry had been used since the time of the Romans, and was also used to protect the Frankish empire from Al-Andalus. As time went on, these heavy cavalry began to lose their importance, and by the 14th century, knights would ride to battle only to dismount and fight on foot as technologies like siege weapons began to develop (which required transport for heavy draft-type horses). “Carolingian shields have been found that go from circular to the later kite shape which also suggest the move from mounted fighting to ground” (Hyland). By the late middle ages, the cavalry seems to have shifted back to the lighter, quicker warhorse that could be used for scouting.
Just as the fighting style in Medieval Europe evolved, so did their equipment and weaponry. For instance, the stirrup (which today is one of the most basic components of riding) first appeared in Europe around the 8th century, although “they appear to have come west from North Eastern China, where stirrups of the present-day type are recorded for the first time from tombs of the 4th century A.D.” (Clutton-Brock). However, despite this evidence, no one is yet able to definitively say exactly when stirrups were invented. No matter when they originally came about, stirrups still have proven to be a vital technology to Europe in the middle ages, and the opportunities they brought with them had a great impact on medieval warfare. Along with the development of a raised cantle and pommel, (front and back of the saddle) a knight could now be much more secure on his mount as well as being able to use a lance which required a lot of stability in order to be effective. Inventions such as the snaffle and curb bits, as well as spurs were also introduced during this time. Early knights were known to wear a plate-metal helmet and a coat of chain mail. As time went on these technologies (armor) also became more advanced and by the 11th century horses were also being given protective armor called bard (barding). During this early time when knights were still the essential part of the army, the armor gradually got heavier, the horses got larger, and power (at least for a little while) overcame agility on the battlefield. Even the journeys taken by knights were no small feat. “They were known to travel with two archers (both mounted), a squire (also mounted), a packhorse, two horses for the knight (to save his warhorse for battle), as well as his warhorse” (Davis). By the 1300’s all of this had changed. The knight was now taking a backseat to cavalry archers and skilled pikemen, and by the 1650’s, it seemed as though the large, powerful warhorse had seen its day and was no longer considered as useful.
Besides warfare, medieval horses were also detrimental to the livelihood of the people in everyday life. For instance, during the medieval period there were virtually no roads, (other than a few surviving Roman roads which were often times in various states of disrepair) so many people relied on horses for traveling long distances. These horses were usually ridden rather than used to pull a cart or carriage due to the lack of roadways. However, as more roads were eventually built, horse-drawn vehicles became more and more common. The Middle Ages also made use of the “pack horse” which would carry equipment on its back (ex: a pack horse would travel with a knight carrying supplies as he went on long journeys).
The middle ages were also the first time horses were commonly used for plowing and agricultural reasons. For instance “the “mouldboard plough” was developed during this time, which required heavier teams of horses (and oxen) but allowed the adoption of larger fields” (Wikipedia). The development of both the nailed horseshoe (which seems to have appeared around the 9th century, although some form of horseshoes had been used since the time of the Roman empire), and the horse collar (which was developed to receive power from the shoulders and chest of the animal rather than the neck as had been the tradition when using oxen) also allowed horses to eventually become the main source of agricultural power during these times.
The middle ages may be considered to be a “high-period” for the horse. This was the age when horses were depended on for everything from serving in battle to everyday usages like transport and agriculture. Without the horse, there would have been no medieval knights, and our world today would probably look much different. The medieval period showcases an era of new equine technologies such as the curb, snaffle, and nailed horseshoe, which are still used today, almost completely unchanged from almost 1000 years ago. Medieval breeds developed towards the end of the Middle Ages such as the Friesian and the Lippizaner are also still in existence, and continue to be some of the most scrutinized horses in our present day, many of which have been kept as pure as they were when the breeds were first developed. There are even equestrian practices and sports, which mirror the usages and training of the Middle Ages. For instance, the present-day equestrian sport of dressage was created to mirror some of the training of the old medieval warhorses. The Medieval horse allowed for the Middle Ages to become the great era that it is, and once again show the great impact that the horse has had throughout the entire history of mankind.
Works Cited
Clabby, John. The Natural History of the Horse. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1976.
Clark, John. The Medieval Horse and Its Equipment. Suffolk, UK: The Boydell Press, 2004.
Clutton-Brock, Juliet. Horse Power. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992.
Davis, R.H.C. The Medieval Warhorse. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1989.
Hyland, Ann. The Medieval Warhorse: From Byzantium to the Crusades. United Kingdom: Alan Sutton Publishing Limited, 1994.
Vernon, Arthur. The History and Romance of the Horse. New York, New York: Dover Publications, 1946.
Wikipedia. (May 12, 2008). Horses in the Middle Ages. Retrieved May 9th, 2008, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horses_in_the_Middle_Ages.
The Vespers of St. Charlemagne
By Fr. Augustine
Introduction
(Note: A video will soon be posted of this Vespers celebration - the following explanation is designed to explain the origins of the service and its celebration. A full print-out of the service, with rubrics, follows.)
Charlemagne, upon his death, was highly revered by his countrymen. This reverence took on the proportions of sanctity, and Charles was canonized locally by the Frankish Church. While at a later period (1170 A.D.) canonizations came to be reserved to the Holy See, at the time the Frankish Church was entirely within its rights to perform a local glorification of a saint. The Orthodox Church still follows this method of canonizations – and, since the Frankish Church conducted this canonization before the Schism between East and West, there is no reason for Orthodox Christianity to reject his canonization – although the figure of Charlemagne is still a figure of controversy and prejudice in Eastern Orthodox circles.
Nevertheless, this is how it has come to pass, that a small group of Orthodox monks assisted me in the celebration of the Vespers of Blessed Charlemagne. Some slight introduction to the format used for this celebration of Vespers, and some brief commentary upon the texts' portrayal of Charlemagne's sanctity, may prove helpful to those reading and/or viewing the celebration.
In the first place, the service books of the Church are comprised of two great "types" of texts: first, the "Ordo" texts, which set down the base form, or foundation, of the service; there then remains the "Proper," which comprises the varying texts that are interpolated into the Ordo to make the service specific to a certain feast day or day of the week. Generally speaking, the words “Ordo” and “Proper” refer to the Mass and its texts – but the same principle applies here. For example: normally there is a set form that the service of Vespers takes on a Friday in Paschaltide (the day of this Vespers celebration). However, the feast of Charlemagne has a very full Proper, which changes all the antiphons for that day, adds a Prolix Responsory and changes the Hymn with its versicle and responsory. Of course, the “oratio” (prayer) at the main commemoration is specific to Charlemagne, as well. This results in a service, which retains certain elements of the weekday Ordo (namely, the Psalms employed and the basic format of the service), but is heavily specified for St. Charlemagne in almost all of its variable parts.
The Ordo I have chosen to use, is that of the Sarum Cathedral Office. This choice was made for several reasons. In the first place, I am not in possession of the Ordo texts from the Aachen Breviary (whence most of my Proper derives). But, there are positive reasons for the choice as well. First, the Sarum texts have been blessed and used in the Orthodox Church before, whereas no competent ecclesiastical authority has examined the service books of Aachen and ruled on their suitability for Orthodox worship; therefore, I use the Sarum texts because of their blessedness, beauty, accuracy and refined piety.
Also, the English Church (of which Sarum is an important See) preserves an interesting blend of Gallican and Roman customs, since St. Augustine of Canterbury found Gallican-influenced liturgy already present in England when he and his missionaries arrived, and may have introduced yet more elements after their own travels through Gaul. This was formally blessed and encouraged by Pope St. Gregory the Great in his correspondence with St. Austin of Kent (aka Augustine of Canterbury), as recorded by that felicitous Master and Doctor, the Venerable Bede. When it comes to the Divine Office (as well as the Mass), it is hardly possible to reconstruct the forms of worship used in Charlemagne's empire in any realy fulness. It is very possible, however, that the customs and piety of the English Church from the 12th century (whence the Sarum books that I have used derive) actually preserve more particulars of the piety and ceremonial of the early Frankish Church than the more Romanized piety and ethos of 14th and 15th century Aachen Breviary (whence my Proper derives). This is especially true of the chant repertoire – which is richer and more elaborate in English chant, after the Gallican style, than in the Roman.
Lastly, the Aachen Breviary reflects a Cathedral Usage, as opposed to a monastic usage. A Cathedral usage (usually) calls for five psalms at Vespers; those familiar with Latin liturgy will know that the rule of St. Benedict calls for a different number. The Aachen and Sarum use, therefore, each call for the same number of psalms and antiphons, and are thus a good fit for one another.
For the Proper, I have consulted with the Analecta Hymnica Medii Aevi, compiled by Guido M. Dreves. Therein, he compiles the musical portion of Charlemagne’s service, forming a critical edition, from a multitude of service books. The bulk of the service is taken from the Antiphonarium Aquisgranense (Aachen Antiphoner), but many books from other monasteries and cities (Coloniensis, Garstensis, Gerundensis, Ebersburgensis, Emmeramensis, Lubicensis, Francofurtensis, many Cistercian/monastic books and many others) are criticially compared. Because the Analecta Hymnica is concerned with the musical portions of the service, the Versicle and Responsory on the hymn, together with the Chapter following the Psalms, are absent. I have supplied these from the Breviary of Noyons.
The Proper for Charlemagne's Feast (January 28th, or "IV Kalends Februarii"), indicates that the feast was some class of “Double Feast” in Aachen. This is so, because the Proper gives a Prolix Responsory at both the First and Second Vespers of Charlemagne – the presence of two such responsories (and the doubling of the Antiphon upon the Magnificat) is the origin of the name “Double Feast.” Not having the Aachen Cathedral Kalendar from this period, I cannot say specifically what rank the feast had. We can make an educated guess, however.
These are the four ranks of Double Feasts
The Double Feasts (so called because the Antiphon on the Magnificat is doubled):
Principal - The greatest feasts: Easter, Christmas, etc.
Greater - Great feasts: Purification (Candlemas), Trinity Sunday, etc.
Lesser - Major Saints, Apostles, Prophets: St. John Baptist, All Saints, Michaelmas, etc.
Inferior - Important Saints, many Apostles' feasts, Ss. Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, etc.
One would not want to rule out the enthusiasm of Aachen's faithful - it is possible that they numbered Charlemagne's feast amongst the top two or three ranks of feasts; it is far more likely, however, that Charlemagne's feast was ranked amongst the Inferior Doubles. The Principal Doubles tended to have their readings diminished (employing only one Nocturne), as a part of the festivities; that at least, argues against the highest rank - combined with the impiety of numbering Charlemagne's feast day amongst the great days like Christmas, Pentecost and Easter!
Whatever rank it held in Aachen, when the feast was celebrated in other localities, its rank was highly variable. For example, St. Austin of Canterbury is an Inferior Double in England. But, it is unlikely that his feast was celebrated in Aachen at all. So, I have made the informed decision to celebrate Charlemagne's feast in Columbus as an Inferior Double; I believe this is the most probable ranking, anyway.
A feast of this rank impacts upon the more-or-less unchanging Ordo of the service. The "preces" - the reading of psalm 50 accompanied by "little capitularies" and a collect - would be omitted. Also, Vespers in the Sarum Usage could be tri-partite (or even quatri-partite), consisting of Vespers of the Day, of the Virgin, of the Dead, and of All Hallows. An Inferior Double calls for omission of all these - although most would be omitted anyway, seeing as the celebration takes place in Paschaltide according to the Orthodox Calendar. Paschaltide is the time between Pascha (Easter) and Pentecost.
On most Saturdays - a day especially consecrated to Our Lady - the Office of the Blessed Virgin is done fully, in Choir, following the daily Office. There is an exception to this rule, however, whereby this full service of the Blessed Virgin is not observed on any Ember Saturday or any Feast with "ruling of the choir." In those cases, the full service is observed on the prior day, and is omitted on the Feast itself. Because this is an Inferior Double Feast, it is a feast with "ruling of the choir," and thus the Little Vespers of the Virgin are not done in this celebration.
That completes the rather dry explanation of the service’ form. A very brief characterization of the service’ portrayal of Charlemagne is appropriate.
The services have a multi-dimensional appreciation for Charlemagne: as a saint in the broadest sense, as a righteous conqueror, and as a giver of the divine law. Some of the antiphons would be equally applicable to most other saints, emphasizing a holiness of personal life and a right ordering of his energies. But some are yet broader and more generic, seemingly appropriate to all classes of saints. At the Invitatory of Matins, this antiphon was repeated many times:
Humbly God implore
With devotion pure,
Who o'er the stars above
Raised Charles, whom He loved.
And this antiphon from the first Nocturne of Matins could just as easily be sung of St. Benedict:
By shores of hallowed brooks,
Firmly did Charles take root;
And as the flowers of spring
His fragrance forth did bring.
Yet, the particular aspects of Charlemagne's life are also celebrated. Some of these focus on his Christian upbringing from youth (as opposed to the still-common experience of converting into the Faith), such as a short one from Vespers,
Brought up in the sweentess
Of the Angelic cult,
When he was raised to high office,
Charles was fed on Bread from heaven.
Or another from Matins, which speaks of how Charlemagne was already wise and mature from an early age.
Jewel of Franks, O Charles,
Boy bearing an aged heart!
While yet a new pupil of the human lot
But in nowise acting childishly,
You spurned the world and were wary of wealth
Whilst following Christ, whom you loved.
Verse: Pressing to his breast the justice of the Divine Law,
He offered himself to God as a pleasant sacrifice.
In this antiphon, we see that he is revered as a cultor of the divine law. This sentiment is echoed in other places, as in the Antiphon upon the Magnificat, where Charles is called a "rule of virtue" and "highway of justice."
He is also celebrated as a righteous warrior and conqueror - especially as one who liberates Christians or brings about the conversion of Pagans. The Vespers Hymn celebrates him almost as another Christ, saying
O king, subduer of the world,
And emperor over the kings of Earth.
Of your flock, of this our throng,
Piously hear the pious tears.
At whose prayer death is fled away,
Life is given and languor fails,
Who from the rock make water to flow
And cleanse the nations in baptism.
One of the most interesting antiphons relates his violently pious exploits at Pamplona.
By the flowing prayer of his righteous mind
The walls of Pamplona were ruined.
The conqueror, in spurning the wretched cult [of Islam],
Has the survivors for his friends.
V:Mightier than the lion,
But meeker than the lamb;
He caused foreign hosts in baptism
To be reborn for Christ.
The texts also want to emphasize the universal acclaim (and one can infer therefrom, the legitimacy) of his rule:
With Frankia demanding it
And the Curia applauding it
WIth a royal sceptre beautified
And above all others lifted high
God esteemed him worthy
Of the royal glory.
V: A champion o'er the vices in the fray,
By Leo's hand the Emperor is made.
Perhaps the third Responsory from Matins best combines all of these themes:
As a Caesar supported
By earthly power's sword
So with justice of law
He galloped through his course
To win for himself the prize
Of glory and salvation.
Verse: Struggling manfully,
And faithfully bearing all things.
The hymnographer was at times very inventive and clever. It is a shame that his thoughts can hardly be preserved in translation. For example, the Antiphon ad Magnificat hails Charlemagne as
Terror hostiis, Hostia Victis
("Terror to foreign armies, Yet a sacrificial victim unto those conquered.")
In the Latin, obviously, the thought is more concise and also a bit "punny." The hymnographer is talented at drawing upon similar sounds, and playing off of various connotations with words and phrases. Perhaps the most charming example is the verse of the second Matins Responsory:
Vitiorum Triumphator
In Agone
Consecratur Imperator
A Leone.
Here the author sets forth the image of Charlemagne struggling "in agone," which would have unfailingly brought to mind the struggles of Christian martyrs in the arena (this word and phraseology is frequently used for such a purpose). This tends to also bring "lions" to mind. Here, the author embellishes upon the theme that those who torture the martyrs are in fact their greatest friends, since all the torments they inflict are actually crowns and ornaments upon the soon-to-be Saint in Glory. So, the lion (leone) crowns the martyr rather than eating him. Or, perhaps, crowns the martyr by eating him. But the lion in this antiphon also refers to another "Leo" altogether.
Yes, the "lion" is also the Pope: Pope Leo, who crowned Charlemagne on Christmas Day. The hymnographer has skillfully blended all this imagery to make a memorable play upon the name of the Pope that crowned Charlemagne. Normally Christians were devoured by lions set upon them by a Pagan Emperor. Now, a Christian emperor is crowned by a lion (Leo) in another sense, entirely.
There is, possibly, another reference to Leo (and St. Agnes) in the verse to the fourth Matins Responsory. Therein Charlemagne is Leoni fortior, sed Agno mitior. Perhaps the hymn's composer is boasting a bit about Charlemagne's accomplishments by making him greater than Pope St. Leo the Fourth (the leoni, than whom Charlemagne is fortior), and also greater than St. Agnes the Virgin Martyr (the agno, than whom Charlemagne is mitior). Why would the hymnographer want to make Charlemagne "meeker" than St. Agnes? Well, Charlemagne's new feast was composed for the Fourth of the Kalends of February. The same day as the secondary Feast of St. Agnes (the octave and crown of her feast, in fact), now demoted in Charles' favor!
A final point about this celebration of Vespers: the cathedral at Aachen, as we have all seen, was splendid. Doubtless there were many clerics there to chant the services, and they must have done so with skill. But, times have changed and we monks are fewer in numbers. And, when it comes to modern-day, Eastern Orthodox monks chanting 700-year old services from the Western, Latin Church... well, I'm sure the skill level is a bit lower, too. This is a humble service, and is nothing like it would have been in the Cathedral of Aachen on Charlemagne's Feast. Before rubrical purists and liturgical savants from the empyrean realms of glory take our humble brotherhood to task for the rubrical impurity of our performance, I would remind them that I am aware of its shortcomings. We are three monks. Only two of us can sing (poorly at that), and one of these is the priest, who is not free to join me in choir as he is celebrating the service.
Nevertheless, I know that even in the Western Church there was the mentality of "making do" with what one had, when this was necessary. St. Cuthbert chanted his hours in an abandoned little shack while travelling. St. Ceolfrith, after a plague wiped out all his monks besides a young boy (the Venerable St. Bede), attempted to chant the services in full with all the antiphons – but, broke down in tears and changed his mind, when he heard the antiphons sung by only their two, little voices. The Rule of our Holy Father Benedict grants permission to omit the antiphons entirely in small brotherhoods.
We have opted to sing the antiphons, according to our slight power - albeit in a simplified manner, not according to the original melodies. The hymn is sung in an ancient melody for Confessors' Feasts of Nine Lessons, and some of the antiphons for processions and commemorations are after ancient Sarum usage. But, the other propers for Charlemagne are being improvised. The purpose of this celebration is threefold: to allow future students in the "Court of Charlemagne" class to hear the words in which Charlemagne came to be venerated; to give some example of what a Medieval Vespers service is like; and lastly, to do something for the love of God, and to honor Him through honoring His servant Charles. The video can only be enjoyed, if at all, in this spirit.
I understand that the video is not yet posted (as of 5/30/08). I hope to see it here in the next two weeks. A word-for-word reproduction of the service (with rubrical explanations) follows this introductory material, for those unable to watch the celebration.
Charlemagne understood how important it is to learn and to struggle to better one's self. So, I will post here a fairly simple Antiphon from the "Second Vespers" of the Feast of St. Charlemagne. The Christian day, like the Jewish, begins and ends at Sundown, not midnight. The first Vespers introduces the feast on the evening “before” the Feast Day. The Second Vespers bids farewell to the Feast on the evening after. These, then, are the words with which the faithful in Aachen bade farewell to the Feast of St. Charlemagne - and they sum up the most affectionate of their sentiments towards him. In the spirit of the Carolingian Renaissance, I encourage you to brush up on your Latin and translate this one yourself:
O Dei sacer athleta, Carole,
O saxeae gentis apostole,
O vere confessor obsequio,
Virgo votis, martyrque studio,
Qui, Quem virtute potentis
Dexterae praedicasti
Mentibus sacrilegis
Paraclitum Inspirasti,
Mediante Sancto Aegidio
Sanctionis Dominicae Mysterio
Coelitus per Angelum collatam
Implora nobis peccatorum veniam. Amen.
Quaerendo invenietis - et, Deo Gratias.
Here Follows the Text of the
Vespers of Blessed Charlemagne
After the bell has finished tolling, the priest crosses himself and begins, softly:
+In the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Amen.
Our Father, Who art in heaven, hallowed be Thy name; Thy Kingdom come, Thy will be done, on earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread, and forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors; and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. Amen.
Hail Mary, Full of Grace; the Lord is with thee! Blessed art thou amongst women, and blessed is the Fruit of thy womb, Jesus.
All cross their foreheads, and the priest begins:
O God, attend unto mine assistance! [All join:] Lord, hasten to help me! +Glory to the Father and to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit; as it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be, throughout all the ages of ages. Amen. Alleluya!
Now the psalms are sung, with their attendant antiphons.
Ps. 137
1 I will praise thee, O lord, with my whole heart: for thou hast heard the words of my mouth. I will sing praise to thee in the sight of his angels: 2 I will worship towards thy holy temple, and I will give glory to thy name. For thy mercy, and for thy truth: for thou hast magnified thy holy name above all. 3 In what day soever I shall call upon thee, hear me: thou shall multiply strength in my soul. 4 May all the kings of the earth give glory to thee: for they have heard all the words of thy mouth. 5 And let them sing in the ways of the Lord: for great is the glory of the Lord. 6 For the Lord is high, and looketh on the low: and the high he knoweth afar off. 7 If I shall walk in the midst of tribulation, thou wilt quicken me: and thou hast stretched forth thy hand against the wrath of my enemies: and thy right hand hath saved me. 8 The Lord will repay for me: thy mercy, O Lord, endureth for ever: O despise not the work of thy hands.
Ant. 1, mode 1d.
Born of Royal Stock
And approved by God,
Charles spurned this life's
Illicit contagions.
Ps. 138
1 Lord, thou hast proved me, and known me: 2 Thou hast know my sitting down, and my rising up. 3 Thou hast understood my thoughts afar off: my path and my line thou hast searched out. 4 And thou hast foreseen all my ways: for there is no speech in my tongue. 5 Behold, O Lord, thou hast known all things, the last and those of old: thou hast formed me, and hast laid thy hand upon me. 6 Thy knowledge is become wonderful to me: it is high, and I cannot reach to it. 7 Whither shall I go from thy spirit? or whither shall I flee from thy face? 8 If I ascend into heaven, thou art there: if I descend into hell, thou art present. 9 If I take my wings early in the morning, and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea: 10 Even there also shall thy hand lead me: and thy right hand shall hold me. 11 And I said: Perhaps darkness shall cover me: and night shall be my light in my pleasures. 12 But darkness shall not be dark to thee, and night shall be light as day: the darkness thereof, and the light thereof are alike to thee. 13 For thou hast possessed my reins: thou hast protected me from my mother's womb. 14 I will praise thee, for thou art fearfully magnified: wonderful are thy works, and my soul knoweth right well. 15 My bone is not hidden from thee, which thou hast made in secret: and my substance in the lower parts of the earth. 16 Thy eyes did see my imperfect being, and in thy book all shall be written: days shall be formed, and no one in them. 17 But to me thy friends, O God, are made exceedingly honourable: their principality is exceedingly strengthened. 18 I will number them, and they shall be multiplied above the sand: I rose up and am still with thee. 19 If thou wilt kill the wicked, O God: ye men of blood, depart from me: 20 Because you say in thought: They shall receive thy cities in vain. 21 Have I not hated them, O Lord, that hated thee: and pine away because of thy enemies? 22 I have hated them with a perfect hatred: and they are become enemies to me. 23 Prove me, O God, and know my heart: examine me, and know my paths. 24 And see if there be in me the way of iniquity: and lead me in the eternal way.
Ant. 2; mode 2d
Brought up in the sweentess
Of the Angelic cult,
When he was raised to high office,
Charles was fed on Bread from heaven.
Ps. 139
1 Unto the end, a psalm for David. 2 Deliver me, O Lord, from the evil man: rescue me from the unjust man. 3 Who have devised iniquities in their hearts: all the day long they designed battles. 4 They have sharpened their tongues like a serpent: the venom of saps is under their lips. 5 Keep me, O Lord, from the hand of the wicked: and from unjust men deliver me. Who have proposed to supplant my steps. 6 The proud have hidden a net for me. And they have stretched out cords for a snare: they have laid for me a stumblingblock by the wayside. 7 I said to the Lord: Thou art my God: hear, O Lord, the voice of my supplication. 8 O Lord, Lord, the strength of my salvation: thou hast overshadowed my head in the day of battle. 9 Give me not up, O Lord, from my desire to the wicked: they have plotted against me; do not thou forsake me, lest they should triumph. 10 The head of them compassing me about: the labour of their lips shall overwhelm them. 11 Burning coals shall fall upon them; thou wilt cast them down into the fire: in miseries they shall not be able to stand. 12 A man full of tongue shall not be established in the earth: evil shall catch the unjust man unto destruction. 13 I know that the Lord will do justice to the needy, and will revenge the poor. 14 But as for the just, they shall give glory to thy name: and the upright shall dwell with thy countenance.
Ant. 3; mode 3e
The Caesar obtained
The holy effects of virtue;
His civilized compatriots
Spurned contemptible beguilements.
Ps. 140
1 I have cried to the, O Lord, hear me: hearken to my voice, when I cry to thee. 2 Let my prayer be directed as incense in thy sight; the lifting up of my hands, as evening sacrifice. 3 Set a watch, O Lord, before my mouth: and a door round about my lips. 4 Incline not my heart to evil words; to make excuses in sins. With men that work iniquity: and I will not communicate with the choicest of them. 5 The just shall correct me in mercy, and shall reprove me: but let not the oil of the sinner fatten my head. For my prayer also shall still be against the things with which they are well pleased: 6 Their judges falling upon the rock have been swallowed up. They shall hear my words, for they have prevailed: 7 As when the thickness of the earth is broken up upon the ground: Our bones are scattered by the side of hell. 8 But o to thee, O Lord, Lord, are my eyes: in thee have I put my trust, take not away my soul. 9 Keep me from the snare, which they have laid for me, and from the stumblingblocks of them that work iniquity. 10 The wicked shall fall in his net: I am alone until I pass.
Ant. 4; mode 4e
Equipped with the armament
Of the shield of righteous faith
By intellections he rose above
The torrid seething of sin.
Ps. 141
1 Of understanding for David. A prayer when he was in the cave. [1 Kings 24] 2 I cried to the Lord with my voice: with my voice I made supplication to the Lord. 3 In his sight I pour out my prayer, and before him I declare my trouble: 4 When my spirit failed me, then thou newest my paths. 5 I looked on my right hand, and beheld, and there was no one that would know me. Flight hath failed me: and there is no one that hath regard to my soul. 6 I cried to thee, O Lord: I said: Thou art my hope, my portion in the land of the living. 7 Attend to my supplication: for I am brought very low. Deliver me from my persecutors; for they are stronger than I. 8 Bring my soul out of prison, that I may praise thy name: the just wait for me, until thou reward me.
Ant. 5; mode 5f
Neither fear of the world,
Nor the avaricious error of lucre
Could subdue (his) mind,
Following the commands of Christ. The melismatic pneum for the tone is appended.
Now the Chapter is intoned.
He recieved the power to reign, and wrought what was pleasant in the eyes of the Lord : deeds like unto those done by his father. (II. Paralipomenon, chap. 29)
R: Thanks be to God.
The responsory is now chanted.
This soldier of Thine did follow Thee,
And Thou didst receive him.
Likened unto Elisaeus,
He wrought fitting works for God, Alleluya, Alleluya.
V: Who, whilst he prays, languor fails;
Death takes flight and life returns.
Likened unto Elisaeus, he wrought fitting works for God.
Glory be to the Father and to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit.
Alleluya, Alleluya.
This soldier of Thine did follow Thee,
And Thou didst receive him.
Likened unto Elisaeus,
He wrought fitting works for God, Alleluya, Alleluya.
Then the Vespers hymn for Charlemagne. A thurifer makes sure that the censer is prepared with a coal and incense.
O King, Subduer | of the World,
And Emperor over | the kings of Earth.
Of your flock, | of this our throng,
Piously hear the pious tears.
At whose prayer | death is fled away,
Life is given | and languor fails,
Who from the rock | makes water to flow
And cleanses the nations in baptism.
With skill | and nat'ral power
You shatter | unyielding city walls.
With pure prayer | paying vows to Christ,
Cutting down rebels with the sword.
O, how worthy | a slave of heaven,
A good and loyal | servant true,
He fortified | the earthly towers
And travelled to the place of peace.
Therefore strike | the iron rock,
Produce for us | the living fount!
Beseech our God | with tender prayer
And make Him to be mild towards us.
As the last verse of the hymn is sung, the priest removes his plain cope and enters the sanctuary, where he is met by a taper-bearer and the thurifer. There he replaces his plain with a more solemn cope.
+Ascribe greatness | to the Trinity,
Praise and honor | for the Unity,
Which, with might | of governing
Reigns rightly in co-equality. Amen.
The versicle following the hymn is intoned:
V: Percussisti omnes mihi adversantes sine causa.
(You have stricken all who oppose me without a cause.)
And all softly respond:
R: Dentes peccatorum contrivisti, Domine.
(You have shattered the teeth of sinners, O Lord.)
Now the Magnificat begins. While the cantor intones the incipit of its antiphon, the censer is brought to the priest by the thurifer, for the blessing as follows.
Thurifer. “Benedicite!” (Bless!)
Priest. “Dominus.” (The Lord Bless)
The priest then blesses the incense.
Priest. “Ab ipso benedicatur, in cujus honore cremabitur. + In Nomine Patrist, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti. Amen.”
(May it be blessed by Him, in Whose honour it shall be burnt. + In the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Amen.)
The priest does not yet take the censer, but makes a prostration before the High Altar. He then receives the censer from the thurifer and censes the altar – thrice in the middle, thrice on the right and thrice on the left. He then perambulates the altar, censing – especially being sure to cense the image of the Virgin in the sanctuary (or perhaps the Proskomide table w/Nativity Icon), and the ark of the relics, thrice each. He may then give the censer to the thurifer (or, continue himself). If he gives the censer to the thurifer, the priest is escorted back to his place in choir by taper-bearers and the thurifer shall cense the priest first of all. Then, whether it be the priest or the thurifer who censes, the censing continues with the choir (rulers of the choir first), followed by the people and the holy icons.
Throughout all this censing, the choir is chanting the Magnificat, with its antiphon.
My soul doth magnify the Lord.
And my spirit hath rejoiced in God my Saviour.
Because he hath regarded the humility of his handmaid; for behold from henceforth all generations shall call me blessed.
Because he that is mighty, hath done great things to me; and holy is his name.
And his mercy is from generation unto generations, to them that fear him.
He hath shewed might in his arm: he hath scattered the proud in the conceit of their heart.
He hath put down the mighty from their seat, and hath exalted the humble.
He hath filled the hungry with good things; and the rich he hath sent empty away.
He hath received Israel his servant, being mindful of his mercy:
As he spoke to our fathers, to Abraham and to his seed for ever.
Ant. Ad Magnificat; mode 6f
O Hope to the afflicted,
Terror to hosts, Host to the conquered,
Rule of Virtue
Highway of justice, shape and figure of healing!
O Charles, gently receive
The votives of thy slaves. The melismatic pneum proper to the tone is appended.
Preces are omitted on a feast of this rank, the priest straightway chants, solemnly:
V: Dominus vobiscum. (The Lord be with you)
R: Et cum spiritu tuo. (And with thy spirit)
Oremus. Rex Regum, Domine Ds. Omns., Qui Beati Caroli arma et scripta multarum gentium conversione sanctificasti; conced, ut quem, ad Nominis Tui gloriam, victoriis et imperio decorasti in terris, Ecclesiae Tuae, quam tantopere dilexit atque defendit, patrocinetur in coelis. Per Dom.
(Translation: Let us pray. King of Kings, Lord God Almighty, Who sanctified both the arms and the writings of Blessed Charles with the conversion of many peoples : grant that he, whom you adorned on earth with victories and an empire, unto the glory of your Name, might also in the heavens be a patron unto Your Church, which he so greatly cherished and defended. We ask this through our Lord, Jesus Christ, Your Son, Who lives and reigns with You in the unity of the Holy Spirity as one God through all the ages of ages.)
All respond: Amen. The priest again chants, solemnly:
V: Dominus Vobiscum.
R: Et cum spiritu tuo.
A chanter intones the first Benedicamus.
Benedicamus Domino. (Let us bless the Lord).
And all respond:
Deo Gratias (Thanks be to God).
Then two commemorations are done, one of the Resurrection (it being Paschaltide),
Antiphon, tone 1.
The Lord is risen from the sepulchre,
Who for our sakes hung upon the Tree,
Allelluya, alleluya, alleluya.
V. Dominus Surrexit! (The Lord is Risen!)
R. Sicut dixit, alelluya! (As He said, alleluya!)
Oremus.
O God, Who by Thine Only-Begotten Son didst open wide for us today the door to eternal life, death having been destroyed : the prayers which, in preventing us, Thou dost inspire do Thou also, assisting us, bring to fruition – through Christ our Lord.
All reply. Amen.
Then is done the last commemoration, of the Holy Virgin:
Antiphon, tone 2.
The door to Paradise
Was shut to all mankind by Eve.
And it hath been opened again
By the Virgin Mary, Alleluya.
V. Post partum, Virgo, permansisti inviolata!
R: Sancta Deipara, intercede pro nobis, alleluya!
(V: After Childbirth, O Virgin, you remained inviolate!)
(R: Holy Theotokos, intercede for us, alleluya!)
Oremus.
Pour Thy grace into our souls, we pray Thee, O Lord : that we, who have known the Incarnation of Christ Thy Son by the tidings of an Angel may, through His Passion and Cross, be brought into the glory of the Resurrection. + Through the same Christ our Lord.
All reply: Amen. The priest again chants, in the solemn melody:
V: Dominus vobiscum.
R: Et cum spiritu tuo.
The final Benedicamus, in elaborate melody, is intoned by the choir.
Benedicamus Domino.
All reply: Deo Gratias.
The priest ends the actual service, exactly as it was begun:
+In the Name… Our Father… Hail, Mary…
The Vespers have now ended, but by custom there is made a procession to the shrine, altar or image of the Virgin Mary. All carry candles in their hands for the procession.
Antiphon, tone 6.
Rejoice, Queen of Heaven; rejoice, Lady of the Angels! Hail O Holy Root, by whom Light arose upon the world! Rejoice, glorious Lady, beautiful above all women! Most noble Lady, fare thee well, and forever pray to Christ for us, alleluya!
V: Sancta Deipara, Virgo Semper Maria,
R: Intercede pro nobis cum Domino Deo nostro, alleluya!
(V: Holy Theotokos, Ever Virgin Mary)
(R: Intercede for us with the Lord, our God, alleluya!)
Oremus.
Grant us Thy servants, we beseech Thee, Lord God, to rejoice in perpetual health of mind and body : and by the glorious intercession of the Blessed and Ever-Virgin Mary, grant that we may be delivered from present sorrow and reap the fruits of eternal joy. + Through our Lord, Jesus Christ, Thy Son, Who lives and reigns with Thee in the unity of the Holy Spirit, God through all the ages of ages.
All reply: Amen.
Here end the Vespers of Blessed Charlemagne - and Thanks be to God.
Bibliography
Keller, Fr. Aidan The Holy Psalter according to Sarum Usage (In preparation for publication)
Dreves, Guido M. and Blume, Clemens, editors Analecta Hymnica Medii Aevi, v. XXV, Leipzig: O.R. Reisland, 1897.
Morel, P. Gall, editor Lateinische Hymnen des Mittelalters Einsiedlen: Carl and Nicolaus Benziger, 1868.
Breviarium Noviomense ad Usum Regalis Ecclesiae Sancti Quintini, edited beneath the auspices of Bishop Joannis-Francisci de la Cropte de Bourzac, published in Paris cum Privilegio Regis Christianissimi, 1774.
Daniel J. Russell
Professor Grotans
MRS 210
30 May 2008
Early Medieval Music
It is sometimes difficult to analyze the music of the early medieval age because the only pieces of evidence that we have to analyze the topic are manuscripts. Not many manuscripts relating to music from that time period are around today because the parchment used for manuscripts was expensive and the process was very time-consuming for scribes. Books were probably more important to the people of the time period, so only wealthy institutions, like the Church and some monasteries, were willing and able to produce the manuscripts for music that we still have today. Both sacred and secular music were preserved through the manuscripts of these institutions.
At the beginning of the medieval ages, notated music was reputed to be monophonic and homo-rhythmic. It appears that there was a unison sung text and there was no notated instrumental support in the beginning. Rhythm was not specified at the beginning of the era, but neumatic notations gave clear phrasing ideas. The simple chant, involving unison voice and natural declamation, was very popular during this time period, but eventually polyphony developed. Harmony, in consonant intervals of perfect fifths, unisons, octaves, (and later, perfect fourths) began to be notated. Rhythmic notation allows for complex interactions between multiple vocal lines in a repeatable fashion.
Many of the instruments that were used in medieval music still exist today, but they are in different forms now. One example is the flute. The flute was made of wood in medieval times, whereas now it is usually made of silver or other metals. The early flute could be played as a side-blown instrument or an end-blown instrument, whereas today the flute is primarily a side-blown instrument. A close relative of the flute is the recorder. The recorder has actually kept its medieval form for the most part. One of the flute's ancestors, the pan flute, was also popular in medieval times. This instrument's pipes were made of wood, and were measured off in length to produce different pitches.
Along with the wind instruments discussed above, medieval music also consisted of many plucked string instruments. Such instruments included the lute, mandora, gittern, and psaltery. The dulcimers, similar in structure to the psaltery and zither, were originally plucked instruments as well, but in the 14th century they became struck instruments with metal strings. Instruments without sound boxes, such as the Jew’s harp, were also popular in the time. Early versions of the organ, fiddle, and the trombone were also in existence.
The Gregorian Chant was developed in Charlemagne's Frankish kingdom, which encompassed modern France, Switzerland and Germany. Little is known about Church singing used in these areas before medieval times because no modern Western system of music writing had yet been invented. Charlemagne wanted the music of the Church in his kingdom to be sung like it was sung in Rome. Without written music, it was difficult for Charlemagne to get what he wanted because the music had to be learned orally, as a folk music tradition. The Frankish chant is thought to have received the name "Gregorian," after Pope Gregory, in order to give it greater authority and to ease its reception in the Frankish Kingdom. As stated earlier, not many manuscript have survived that give good detail of medieval music. This is also the case for the Gregorian Chant. There are no surviving book containing complete written repertories of the chant with music from the tenth century, but there are books from the eleventh century. Some of the earlier notations give rhythmic details, but most do not give exact pitches, so they may be interpreted in many different ways today. Pitch-defined manuscripts began to appear in the eleventh century and were well-established by the twelfth. In these, the pitches can be read without knowledge of the oral tradition, but the rhythmic details cease to be recorded.
Christianity was a dominant part of medieval culture, so an entire musical style developed just to support it. Sacred music was therefore set to the text of the Bible or at least inspired by it. This meant it was necessary for composers of sacred music to have some sort of education, a rare commodity in those days. For those who did not have the musical training and Biblical literacy needed for composing sacred music, there was the less-sophisticated realm of secular music.
The goals of sacred and secular early medieval composers were originally different. The sacred composers sought to set the Bible to music and to bring a more “heavenly” aspect to church than could be obtained by simply reading the Bible. Sacred music was originally composed to pay homage to God. Secular music, on the other hand, was composed solely for its entertainment value, whether for dance or to express love. In the early medieval times, sacred composers were formally trained in music and secular composers were usually not. So not only did the two forms of music serve different purposes, they also represented a musical separation in society between the formally trained and the untrained, or even the rich and the poor.
Even to this day this type of division still exists between those formally trained in music and those who are not. Today, however, those formally trained do not usually write sacred music, but rather what is now called “classical” music. The “commoners” of today listen to folk, rock, country, or some other type of relatively “simple” form of music, i.e., pop music. In essence, though, music has evolved from the medieval times. It is still split into those who are formally trained and those who are not. The difference is that today the division between the trained and untrained is not delineated by religion, but usually by access to a university or other formal musical education program.
As stated earlier, medieval secular music was usually passed along orally and very rarely written down, so little has survived. In fact, this is true of most folk music until the last century. Medieval musicians and composers did not feel the need to stamp the works they wrote down with their name, which would be unthinkable for any modern artist. So part of what secular music has survived from the Middle Ages is often anonymous. Often, at best, music scholars have pinned down the style of a piece to several composers and to within a decade or two.
Those who know a bit about medieval music usually think of the troubadors, trouveres, and minnesingers when they think of secular music. All were different names for essentially the same type of musician found in the medieval period throughout Europe. Troubadors were found in southern France and northern Italy, trouveres in central and northern France, and minnesingers in Germany. Troubadors, trouveres, minnesingers were usually poets first, and the music was most likely originally used just as accompaniment. The estampie, an instrumental music which was most likely used for dance, is another common form of secular medieval music. There were also medieval dramas, predecessors of the opera. The primary focus of the medieval drama was not the music, but the acting. Since secular music’s purpose was for entertainment, there was little drive to push its style to the edges during the early medieval times. Therefore, it was from sacred music, where the inspiration to please God was present, that medieval music truly evolved.
Works Cited
Fenlon, Iain. Music in Medieval and Early Modern Europe : Patronage, Sources, and Texts. Cambridge [Eng.]; New York: Cambridge UP, 1981.
Hoppin, Richard H. Medieval Music. New York: W. W. Norton, 1978.
Laughlin, Donalda. Developing Basic Musicianship Through the Study of Medieval and Early Renaissance Music. Los Angeles, 1967.
Page, Christopher, ed. Music and Instruments of the Middle Ages : Studies on Texts and Performance. Aldershot, Great Britain; Brookfield, Vt.: Variorum, 1997.
Parrish, Carl. The Notation of Medieval Music. London: Faber & Faber, 1957.
Reese, Gustave. Music in the Middle Ages. New York: W. W. Norton, 1940.
Seay, Albert. Music in the Medieval World. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1965.
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